Social Problems of Iran

The Socio-Cultural Contexts of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) with a Focus on “Circumcision” in Hormozgan Province

Authors

Afsaneh Bahador 1
Alieh Shekarbeygi 2
Sasan Vadiea 2

1 PhD Student, Department of Sociology, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

https://doi.org/10.61882/jspi.16.3.59
Abstract
One of the types of violence against women is genital mutilation, such as Circumcision, which causes physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women and is caused by cultural and social issues and has received less attention. The aim of the present study is to examine the “lived experience of the socio-cultural contexts of female genital mutilation centered on “Circumcision” in Hormozgan Province”. Data were collected using a social interpretive approach and a qualitative method using in-depth interview techniques. Based on the purposeful snowball sampling method and the theoretical saturation criterion, fifteen people participated in this study and their lived experience in relation to the lived experience of female genital mutilation centered on “Circumcision” was studied and analyzed. The analysis of information and the presentation of the final theory are based on the grounded theory method. According to the findings, the central category that indicates the impact of religious and family institutions in the continuation and “reproduction of the traditional pattern” has been. The causal conditions for the formation of the central phenomenon as perceived by the participants include: deception, inexperience, passivity, fear, disturbing feelings or perceptions. The conditions of various intervening factors include: traditionalism, obligation of religious norms, gender stereotypes, repressive stereotypes and cultural alienation. In order to oppose the phenomenon and interrupt it, the activists also use strategies such as: escape strategies (escape, delay) and gender empowerment. The consequences of using the strategies of the participants are: withdrawal; feminine deficiency, physical, mental and emotional damage, dissatisfaction and social confrontation.

Extended Abstract

1. Introduction

Female genital mutilation (FGM) not only lacks any medical or health benefits but also represents a form of violence and sexual abuse against girls and women. This practice jeopardizes women’s health and leads to numerous complications, including uterine infections, severe pain during sexual intercourse, frequent urination, and persistent bleeding. Violence against women transcends class, race, nationality, age, religion, and ideology, and FGM—often referred to as cutting or circumcision—is one manifestation of this global phenomenon. It inflicts physical, sexual, and psychological harm and persists due to entrenched cultural and social norms that have received limited scholarly attention.

Opposition to FGM has become a major concern for women’s rights advocates, human rights activists, social movements, and international organizations such as UNICEF and the United Nations. The most extreme forms of this practice have devastating effects on women’s physical and psychological well-being and can even result in death due to bleeding or infection.

This study aims to examine the socio-cultural contexts of FGM in Hormozgan Province, focusing on the lived experiences of women who have undergone cutting. It seeks to answer the following questions: What are women’s lived experiences of FGM in Hormozgan Province? What are the socio-cultural foundations of this practice? What are its main consequences? And what strategies can help prevent or reduce it?

2. Methodology

This qualitative study employs grounded theory to explore the lived experiences and socio-cultural foundations of FGM. Participants were selected through theoretical and snowball sampling, resulting in a group of 15 women from Hormozgan Province in 2022–2023. Interviews continued until data saturation was reached.

Data collection was based on semi-structured interviews, and new participants were recruited according to emerging concepts and categories derived from the grounded theory framework. The data were analyzed through open, axial, and selective coding, leading to 289 initial concepts condensed into 42 subcategories and 17 core categories. These were integrated into a paradigmatic model consisting of causal conditions, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences centered around the core phenomenon.

To ensure validity, interviews included women of different ages and social backgrounds. Continuous comparison of data, triangulation with national and international studies, and conceptual saturation strengthened both internal and external validity.

3. Findings

Causal conditions showed that family decisions regarding cutting are shaped by local normative pressures, fear of moral stigmatization, and gender stereotypes. Mothers, often influenced by elder female relatives, face a conflict between preserving family honor and protecting their daughters’ bodily integrity.

Contextual and intervening conditions revealed that local customs outweigh religious mandates, with religion serving more as a legitimizing discourse than a genuine obligation. Ritual adherence—embedded within an “economy of morality” that links honor to control over female sexuality—plays a decisive role in maintaining the practice. Although some participants referred to strict Shafi'i interpretations, analysis showed these beliefs were intertwined with misinformation and limited access to alternative medical or religious perspectives. The findings also indicated that women’s strategies evolve over time. In childhood, strategies such as silence, avoidance, and endurance prevail, while in adulthood, negotiation, persuasion, alliance-building, and consulting midwives or physicians emerge as active strategies. These actions expand through storytelling, reframing of shame and honor, and social media advocacy. Education, urbanization, and exposure to external influences further strengthen this transformation.

The consequences are both physical and psychological: pain during intercourse, reduced pleasure, difficulty achieving sexual satisfaction, feelings of bodily violation, and traumatic recollections. A notable insight is women’s dual role—as both subjects of the practice and agents of its reproduction or transformation. Female leadership within families can either reinforce traditional norms or catalyze change when supported by education, networks, and alternative knowledge.

4. Conclusion

The conceptual framework integrates causal and intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences into a coherent model centered on the reproduction of male-centered subjectivity upon women’s bodies. This reproduction is sustained through ritual legitimacy, bodily discipline, and intergenerational transmission within kinship-based family structures and the moral economy of honor. However, intervening factors such as education, urbanization, culturally sensitive health services, and access to alternative narratives open cracks in this structure. Depending on women’s access to resources and alliances, these cracks may widen, allowing for critical forms of female agency to emerge. Consequently, outcomes range from the reinforcement of patriarchal control to the rise of a new female subjectivity that redefines bodily dignity and social value.

Keywords

Sexual mutilation
Circumcision
Violence
Patriarchy and traditional model
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Waigwa, S., Doos, L., Bradbury-Jones, C., & Taylor, J. (2018). Effectiveness of health education as an intervention designed to prevent female genital mutilation/cutting(FGM/C): a systematic review. Reproductive health, 15, 1-14.
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  • Receive Date 08 June 2026
  • Publish Date 08 June 2026